The debatable future of our livestock

Livestock have been an integral part of our food systems for thousands of years, and contributed to the formation of societies and cultures. They have contributed, and still do, to food security by providing high-quality macro- en micronutrients, manure and draught power, and by generating income. An increasing body of literature, however, argues for moderating or even eliminating the production and consumption of animal-source food (ASF). Nowadays, ASF is at the heart of fierce debates on healthy and sustainable food systems, as animals impose a significant burden on the environment, consume food edible for humans, cause public health risks, and their keeping and killing raise moral concerns. In order to enhance a transparent societal debate and make informed decisions about the future role of livestock in food systems, we need to better understand the multiple, and often complex roles they play in food systems. Here I address this need by reviewing the multiple benefits and costs of livestock for human health, planetary health, and the health and wellbeing of (farm) animals.