Flexible solution concepts for sustainable drinking water production in the Netherlands

The challenges of providing sustainable drinking water are growing due to resource mismanagement, contamination threats and rising demand, which are further intensified by climate change. This further underscores the need for building-in resilience in existing extraction points to gain flexibility against uncertain and unforeseen developments. Although invisible, groundwater is a key drinking water source globally, including in the Netherlands, where over 60% of drinking water comes from it. The Dutch regulations, limited space and competition for water require adaptive strategies that enhance sustainability in water provision. Here, we identified and categorised various groundwater and surface water extraction archetypes in the Netherlands based on land use, extraction depth and local geology, assessing their susceptibility to contamination and operational challenges. Then, we evaluated four solution concepts to enhance sustainability in drinking water supply: the Water Battery (large-scale managed aquifer recharge), Fresh/Salt extraction (mitigated coastal salinisation), Switching between extractions (balancing demands in space) and Resource City (promoting circularity in urban water supply). Practical examples are already in place in the Netherlands as the Epe Water Battery shows successful infiltration and storage of groundwater to meet local demands and avoid undesirable low groundwater levels. We also explore the legal and operational challenges, emphasising stakeholder collaboration, proactive policies and the need for strategic investments in water quality improvement for a resilient, sustainable water supply in the face of climate change.