Armed conflict as an underappreciated driver of conservation outcomes in frankincense (Boswellia spp.)

Frankincense (Boswellia spp.) resin is an internationally renowned non-timber forest product (NTFP), generating more than $1 billion USD annually for its use in aromatherapy, incenses, perfumery, cosmetics, and medicines. However, many Boswellia species that produce commercially traded frankincense resins grow in arid, resource-poor environments where human conflict and warfare are common, such as the Sahel and the Horn of Africa. Despite this, the impacts of violent conflict on frankincense or other NTFP production systems have been underexplored in the literature. Drawing on anecdotal reports in frankincense and case studies from other species and geographies, we discuss the likely impacts of both acute warfare, such as the recent Tigray war in Ethiopia, and chronic, low-level conflict, such as the ongoing insurgencies by ISIS and Al-Qaeda-linked groups in Somalia and the Sahel. The effects of conflict are wide-ranging and may include direct damage to forests, disruptions of land tenure, management, and governance systems, reduced monitoring capabilities, and limited capacity for sustainable supply chain operations. We explore these potential impacts, outline an agenda for further research, and urge that further attention be given to conflict as an important driver of forest management and conservation outcomes.